Cite as: 511 U. S. 513 (1994)
Opinion of the Court
United States v. Dotterweich, 320 U. S. 277, 281 (1943). We conclude that § 857 is properly construed as containing a scienter requirement.
We turn to the nature of that requirement in this statute. In United States v. Bailey, 444 U. S. 394, 404 (1980), this Court distinguished between the mental states of " 'purpose' " and " 'knowledge,' " explaining, id., at 408, that, "except in narrow classes of offenses, proof that the defendant acted knowingly is sufficient to support a conviction." In Bailey, the Court read into the federal escape statute, 18 U. S. C. § 751(a), a requirement that "an escapee knew his actions would result in his leaving physical confinement without permission," rejecting a heightened mens rea that would have required " 'an intent to avoid confinement.' " 444 U. S., at 408. Similarly, in United States v. United States Gypsum Co., 438 U. S., at 444, the Court addressed the question whether a criminal violation of the Sherman Act "requires, in addition to proof of anticompetitive effects, a demonstration that the disputed conduct was undertaken with the 'conscious object' of producing such effects, or whether it is sufficient that the conduct is shown to have been undertaken with knowledge that the proscribed effects would most likely follow." The Court concluded that "action undertaken with knowledge of its probable consequences . . . can be a sufficient predicate for a finding of criminal liability under the antitrust laws." Ibid.
As in Bailey and United States Gypsum, we conclude that a defendant must act knowingly in order to be liable under § 857. Requiring that a seller of drug paraphernalia act with the "purpose" that the items be used with illegal drugs would be inappropriate. The purpose of a seller of drug paraphernalia is to sell his product; the seller is indifferent as to whether that product ultimately is used in connection with illegal drugs or otherwise. If § 857 required a purpose that the items be used with illegal drugs, individuals could avoid liability for selling bongs and cocaine freebase kits simply by
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