Cite as: 507 U. S. 680 (1993)
Opinion of O'Connor, J.
compelled or involuntary statements. It also promotes institutional respect for constitutional values. But, like the exclusionary rule for illegally seized evidence, Miranda's prophylactic rule does so at a substantial cost. Unlike involuntary or compelled statements—which are of dubious reliability and are therefore inadmissible for any purpose—confessions obtained in violation of Miranda are not necessarily untrustworthy. In fact, because voluntary statements are "trustworthy" even when obtained without proper warnings, Johnson v. New Jersey, 384 U. S. 719, 731 (1966), their suppression actually impairs the pursuit of truth by concealing probative information from the trier of fact. See Harvey, supra, at 350 (Miranda "result[s] in the exclusion of some voluntary and reliable statements"); Elstad, supra, at 312 (loss of "highly probative evidence of a voluntary confession" is a "high cost [for] law enforcement"); McNeil, supra, at 181 (because "the ready ability to obtain uncoerced confessions is not an evil but an unmitigated good," the exclusion of such confessions renders society "the loser"); Tucker, supra, at 461 (White, J., concurring in judgment) ("[H]aving relevant and probative testimony, not obtained by actual coercion . . . aid[s] in the pursuit of truth"); Miranda, supra, at 538 (White, J., dissenting) ("Particularly when corroborated, . . . such [voluntary] confessions have the highest reliability and significantly contribute to the certitude with which we may believe the accused is guilty").
When the case is on direct review, that damage to the truth-seeking function is deemed an acceptable sacrifice for the deterrence and respect for constitutional values that the Miranda rule brings. But once a case is on collateral review, the balance between the costs and benefits shifts; the interests of federalism, finality, and fairness compel Miranda's exclusion from habeas. The benefit of enforcing Miranda through habeas is marginal at best. To the extent Miranda ensures the exclusion of involuntary statements, that task can be performed more accurately by adjudicating
703
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