710
Opinion of O'Connor, J.
was "interrogation," 2 whether warnings were given or were adequate,3 whether the defendant's equivocal statement constituted an invocation of rights,4 whether waiver was knowing and intelligent 5—this is the stuff that Miranda claims are made of. While these questions create litigable issues under Miranda, they generally do not indicate the existence of coercion—pressure tactics, deprivations, or exploitations of the defendant's weaknesses—sufficient to establish involuntariness.
2 See, e. g., Endress v. Dugger, 880 F. 2d 1244, 1246-1250 (CA11 1989) (defendant volunteered information without questioning), cert. denied, 495 U. S. 904 (1990); United States ex rel. Church v. De Robertis, 771 F. 2d 1015, 1018-1020 (CA7 1985) (placing defendant's brother in cell with him not interrogation); Harryman v. Estelle, 616 F. 2d 870, 873-875 (CA5) (en banc) (officer's surprised exclamation, "What is this?" upon finding condom filled with white powder, constituted interrogation), cert. denied, 449 U. S. 860 (1980); Phillips v. Attorney General of California, 594 F. 2d 1288, 1290-1291 (CA9 1979) (defendant volunteered information after officer stated that he wished to see interior of defendant's plane).
3 See, e. g., Chambers v. Lockhart, 872 F. 2d 274, 275-276 (CA8) (omission of right to free appointed counsel), cert. denied, 493 U. S. 938 (1989); Gates v. Zant, 863 F. 2d 1492, 1500-1501 (CA11) (no warning that videotape of confession could be used), cert. denied, 493 U. S. 945 (1989); Crespo v. Armontrout, 818 F. 2d 684, 685-686 (CA8) (when and whether warnings were given), cert. denied, 484 U. S. 978 (1987); De La Rosa v. Texas, 743 F. 2d 299, 301-302 (CA5 1984) (officer's explanation of the warnings alleged to be misleading), cert. denied, 470 U. S. 1065 (1985); Stanley v. Zant, 697 F. 2d 955, 972 (CA11 1983) (allegedly misleading waiver form), cert. denied, 467 U. S. 1219 (1984).
4 See, e. g., Bobo v. Kolb, 969 F. 2d 391, 395-398 (CA7 1992) (standing mute); Christopher v. Florida, 824 F. 2d 836, 841-843 (CA11 1987) (equivocal invocation of right to silence), cert. denied, 484 U. S. 1077-1078 (1988); Lightbourne v. Dugger, 829 F. 2d 1012, 1017-1019 (CA11 1987) (spontaneous resumption of discussion after cutting off questioning), cert. denied, 488 U. S. 934 (1988).
5 See, e. g., Terrovona v. Kincheloe, 912 F. 2d 1176, 1179-1180 (CA9 1990) (validity of implied waiver in light of defendant's "background, experience, and conduct"), cert. denied, 499 U. S. 979 (1991); Fike v. James, 833 F. 2d 1503, 1506-1507 (CA11 1987) (defendant's initiation of contact waived previous invocation of rights).
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