448
Thomas, J., dissenting
courts conduct habeas review. Habeas review " 'disturbs the State's significant interest in repose for concluded litigation, denies society the right to punish some admitted offenders, and intrudes on state sovereignty to a degree matched by few exercises of federal judicial authority.' " Duckworth v. Eagan, 492 U. S. 195, 210 (1989) (O'Connor, J., concurring) (quoting Harris v. Reed, 489 U. S. 255, 282 (1989) (Kennedy, J., dissenting)). See also McCleskey, supra, at 491; Engle, supra, at 128. Where the habeas court cannot say that an error resulted in harm, it seems particularly disrespectful to resolve doubts against the propriety of state-court judgments.
Our "harmless-error" inquiry in the habeas context concerns whether an error " 'had substantial and injurious effect or influence in determining the jury's verdict.' " Brecht, supra, at 627 (quoting Kotteakos v. United States, 328 U. S. 750, 776 (1946)). As alluded to earlier, supra, at 446, this test consists of a causation inquiry—was the error a cause of the conviction. Thus, like all plaintiffs, the habeas plaintiff must show causation if he is to succeed.
II
The Court derives its contrary rule from cases construing the harmless-error statute, the purposes underlying the writ of habeas corpus, and the virtue of administrative consistency that stems from following established precedent. The Court's analysis is unpersuasive.
A
The Court begins by examining harmless-error practice in the context of direct criminal appeals. I do not quarrel with the majority's conclusion that once an error has been shown on direct appeal, the government must demonstrate that it was harmless if the conviction is to stand. See ante, at 437-438 (citing Kotteakos, supra, at 764-765, 776; Chapman v. California, 386 U. S. 18, 24 (1967); and United States
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