Cite as: 532 U. S. 275 (2001)
Stevens, J., dissenting
II
Underlying the majority's dismissive treatment of our prior cases is a flawed understanding of the structure of Title VI and, more particularly, of the relationship between §§ 601 and 602. To some extent, confusion as to the relationship between the provisions is understandable, as Title VI is a deceptively simple statute. Section 601 of the Act lays out its straightforward commitment: "No person in the United States shall, on the ground of race, color, or national origin, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance." 42 U. S. C. § 2000d. Section 602 "authorize[s] and direct[s]" all federal departments and agencies empowered to extend federal financial assistance to issue "rules, regulations, or orders of general applicability" in order to "effectuate" § 601's antidiscrimination mandate. 42 U. S. C. § 2000d-1.10
On the surface, the relationship between §§ 601 and 602 is unproblematic—§ 601 states a basic principle, § 602 authorizes agencies to develop detailed plans for defining the contours of the principle and ensuring its enforcement. In the context of federal civil rights law, however, nothing is ever so simple. As actions to enforce § 601's antidiscrimination principle have worked their way through the courts, we have developed a body of law giving content to § 601's broadly worded commitment. E. g., United States v. Fordice, 505 U. S. 717, 732, n. 7 (1992); Guardians Assn. v. Civil Serv.
a private cause of action." Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith, Inc. v. Curran, 456 U. S. 353, 381-382 (1982). Here, there is no need to rest on presumptions of knowledge and ratification, because the direct evidence of Congress' understanding is plentiful.
10 The remainder of Title VI provides for judicial and administrative review of agency actions taken pursuant to the statute, 42 U. S. C. § 2000d-2; imposes certain limitations not at issue in this case, §§ 2000d-3 to 2000d-4; and defines some of the terms found in the other provisions of the statute, § 2000d-4a.
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