Cite as: 532 U. S. 424 (2001)
Opinion of the Court
jakajian, 524 U. S., at 336, rather than one "marked by a simple mathematical formula," Gore, 517 U. S., at 582. But in deciding whether that line has been crossed, we have focused on the same general criteria: the degree of the defend-ant's reprehensibility or culpability, see, e. g., Bajakajian, 524 U. S., at 337; Gore, 517 U. S., at 575-580; Solem, 463 U. S., at 290-291; Enmund, 458 U. S., at 798; Coker, 433 U. S., at 598 (opinion of White, J.); the relationship between the penalty and the harm to the victim caused by the defend-ant's actions, see, e. g., Bajakajian, 524 U. S., at 339; Gore, 517 U. S., at 580-583; Solem, 463 U. S., at 293; Enmund, 458 U. S., at 798; Coker, 433 U. S., at 598 (opinion of White, J.); and the sanctions imposed in other cases for comparable misconduct, see, e. g., Bajakajian, 524 U. S., at 340-343; Gore, 517 U. S., at 583-585; Solem, 463 U. S., at 291; Enmund, 458 U. S., at 789-796; Coker, 433 U. S., at 593-597 (opinion of White, J.). Moreover, and of greatest relevance for the issue we address today, in each of these cases we have engaged in an independent examination of the relevant criteria. See, e. g., Bajakajian, 524 U. S., at 337-344; Gore, 517 U. S., at 575-586; Solem, 463 U. S., at 295-300; Enmund, 458 U. S., at 788-801; Coker, 433 U. S., at 592-600 (opinion of White, J.).
In Bajakajian, we expressly noted that the courts of appeals must review the proportionality determination "de novo" and specifically rejected the suggestion of the respondent, who had prevailed in the District Court, that the trial judge's determination of excessiveness should be reviewed only for an abuse of discretion. "The factual findings made by the district courts in conducting the excessiveness inquiry, of course, must be accepted unless clearly erroneous. . . . But the question whether a fine is constitutionally excessive calls for the application of a constitutional standard to the facts of a particular case, and in this context de novo review of that question is appropriate." 524 U. S., at 336-337, n. 10 (citing Ornelas v. United States, 517 U. S. 690, 697 (1996)).
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