Cite as: 535 U. S. 234 (2002)
Opinion of O'Connor, J.
child molesters). See also id., Findings (5), (12). Finally, to the extent that the phrase "appears to be . . . of" is ambiguous, the narrowing interpretation avoids constitutional problems such as overbreadth and lack of narrow tailoring. See Crowell v. Benson, 285 U. S. 22, 62 (1932).
Reading the statute only to bar images that are virtually indistinguishable from actual children would not only assure that the ban on virtual child pornography is narrowly tailored, but would also assuage any fears that the "appears to be . . . of a minor" language is vague. The narrow reading greatly limits any risks from " 'discriminatory enforcement.' " Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union, 521 U. S. 844, 872 (1997). Respondents maintain that the "virtually indistinguishable from" language is also vague because it begs the question: from whose perspective? This problem is exaggerated. This Court has never required "mathematical certainty" or " 'meticulous specificity' " from the language of a statute. Grayned v. City of Rockford, 408 U. S. 104, 110 (1972).
The Court concludes that the CPPA's ban on virtual child pornography is overbroad. The basis for this holding is unclear. Although a content-based regulation may serve a compelling state interest, and be as narrowly tailored as possible while substantially serving that interest, the regulation may unintentionally ensnare speech that has serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value or that does not threaten the harms sought to be combated by the Government. If so, litigants may challenge the regulation on its face as over-broad, but in doing so they bear the heavy burden of demonstrating that the regulation forbids a substantial amount of valuable or harmless speech. See Reno, supra, at 896 (O'Connor, J., concurring in judgment in part and dissenting in part) (citing Broadrick, 413 U. S., at 615). Respondents have not made such a demonstration. Respondents provide no examples of films or other materials that are wholly computer generated and contain images that "appea[r] to be . . .
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